1922年，缔约各国协定：“为使中国之门户开放，或各国商务实业之机会均等之原则更为有效起见，缔约各国，除中国外，协定不得谋取或赞助其本国人民谋取……一般优越权利。”该协定出自（      ）

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    在一般定义上，反智可分为两大类：一类是对于智性、知识的反对或怀疑，认为智性或知识并非人生价值的全部，还有其它的因素（如品性、勇气、见识、德行）在影响人的成败；另一种则是对于知识分子的怀疑和鄙视，其极端表现就是中国“文革”期间、苏联李森科主义时期，以及美国麦卡锡主义时期对于知识分子的打击与迫害。前一类反智，我们可以称之为理性的反智，后一类则只能说是片面甚至病态的反智。

    美国社会历史学家理查德·霍夫施塔特研究发现，美国早在18世纪后期就已存在反智运动，杰斐逊和约翰·昆西·亚当斯这两位总统在竞选时，也曾深受反智主义的困扰。而在1957年苏联人造卫星抢先于美国上天后，美国社会的反智浪潮就开始退落，知识和科学成了时代的强音。可是，冷战结束后，美国社会又出现一波反智浪潮，其宗旨就如电影《阿甘正传》、《雨人》所昭示的，每个人都应该提升内在的天赋自信感，而不是迷信那些所谓的精英；按照非世俗的标准，就连有些傻傻的阿甘、雨人其实都是有无限智慧的。

    美国这一波反智浪潮，因以互联网为代表的新经济勃兴而一度归于沉寂，但在新经济泡沫破灭和美国遭到恐怖袭击的背景下，在政治领域又开始抬头，除了把智商一般的小布什两次送入了白宫外，还在2008年借麦凯恩之手挑选了学业不佳、知识贫乏，却富有情感魅力的阿拉斯加州女州长莎拉·佩林担任共和党副总统候选人；如今方兴未艾的“茶党”运动，也有这股反智潮流的影子。因其政治效应发生在美国从电视辩论民主走向网络民主的时代，旅美学者薛涌甚至认为，美国社会的“反智主义”传统，与启蒙主义共同构成美国政治生活的两极。薛涌指出，反智主义是一个充分民主社会的必然产物，“一个大字不识的人，无论从政治权利还是政治人格上，和一位诺贝尔奖得主都是平起平坐，这种传统如果运用得当，就能够挑战、制衡精英主义，突破知识阶层的既得利益所制造的文化霸权，保持社会的原创力和民主的草根性”。

    与美国新一波反智浪潮富于文化和政治理性色彩不同，当下中国网络上颇为典型的暴民心态则体现了“病态反智”只负责恶搞与讥讽，不负责创造与建设的弊端。它表现在，见任何精英及其言论，都是条件反射地先说“不”、“我不相信”、“扯淡”，到最后教授干脆成了“叫兽”、专家成了“砖家”，商人富人统统“为富不仁”，官员则“天下乌鸦一般黑”，总之，理智与客观被各种偏见掩盖，主观的情感性冲动（体现为嘲讽、谩骂与攻击）却往往能得到喝彩与附和。由是观之，在反智的庞大公众队伍里，很明显地存在简单的二元逻辑思维，非此即彼，不能理性地宽容与共存。就在这样的“群体的狂欢”与“个体的迷失”之间，来去无踪的群体被一步步驱动着向“群氓”靠近，成了乌合之众。

    这样的社会情绪与形态，很大程度上是源自精英对大众的背离乃至背叛——文化精英权奴化与商业化，政治精英利益集团化，商业精英权贵化——从而导致中国社会信任关系破裂。信任关系一旦破裂，就很难重建，而缺乏信任，病态反智就只会愈演愈烈。它不仅难以塑造出人格健全的个体，还瓦解和破坏了精英治理的平衡的可能性。当下中国的社会形态就是：神倒下了，人却没有站起来，诸神纷争，乱象丛生。而这种纷争越久，中国离真正现代文明国家就越远。

（选自《南风窗》2010年第22期，作者张天潘）

    Commercial advertisement was once thought of as a technique of the marketers to inform the potential buyers about the availability of certain products. It was seen more as a medium to inform the buyers rather than persuade them to buy. The present day marketers see advertisement as a medium to damage the image of their competitors and their products. This indeed, is an undesirable and an immoral practice. Instead of speaking about their own products, these marketers speak about the drawbacks (often without any basics) of the competing products.

    People watching TV advertisements would notice that there has always been an advertisement war between the marketers of different consumer goods. A few such cases are given below.

⑴Parachute Coconut Oil vs. V.V.D. Gold

Sometime back, the producer of V.V.D Gold Coconut Oil claimed in their TV advertisement that only their products were superior and the one sold in blue colour bottles (the reference was to Parachute coconut oil) was suitable only for un-natural hair.

⑵Tata Salt vs. Captain Cook

Tata salt was first iodised (碘处理) salt marketed by an Indian Company. It has been enjoying a good and steady market. Captain Cook, another producer of iodised salt, who entered the market later, had to adopt some strategy to get control of the market. The TV advertisement of Captain Cook stressed on ‘Free flow' of their salt when transferred to a container. The producer of Tata Salt retaliated (报复) by saying that the claim of Captain Cook was a trick and those who were quality conscious should deal with it with caution.

⑶Pepsi vs. Coca Cola

Coca Cola was selected as the official soft drink for the Wills World Cricket 1996. When the cricket series was on, the marketers of Pepsi constantly advertised on TV. Their advertisement gave the idea that the cricketers preferred only Pepsi and as a matter of fact there was nothing official about it.

⑷Horlicks vs. Complan

Sometime back, the TV advertisement of Complan, a health drink directly attacked Horlicks, which has been in the market for several decades. The claim of Complan was that their brand (which according to them was Brand C) has a higher percentage of ingredients compared to Brand H (reference was nothing but to Horlicks).

The above examples clearly show how the technique of advertisement is misused by some marketers to ruin the image of their competitors. This, certainly, is not a healthy trend.

    Any marketer should only speak about his products and not about his competitors' products. The awareness of consumers has certainly increased over the years and they are no longer easily taken in. There are many consumer products like salt, oil, shaving blades etc. But one thing for sure is that offering the same product in a different container will not make the product different.

    Mass media like Radio, Television and newspaper should not allow advertisements that tell lies. Legal regulations, in this regard, should also be made stricter.

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