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材料  有学者认为,与其他国家相比,中国最独特之处在于,我们是唯一保持了两千年中央集权制度的国家。中国历史上的众多制度创新,从本质上来说,都围绕着四大基本制度展开。这四个基础性制度,如四根“支柱”共同支撑起中央集权的“大厦”,历经上千年的打磨和探索,日渐趋于精致完善,在明清时期达到巅峰。图示如下:


中央集权与四大基本制度

图15

根据材料并结合所学知识,简析图15中每项制度是如何加强中央集权的。


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答案(点此获取答案解析)

郡县制度:地方官吏由中央任免,实现了中央对地方政权直接有效的控制;

尊儒制度:儒家思想成为正统思想,为加强中央集权奠定了思想基础;

科举制度:把选拔人才和任免官吏的权力收归中央,为中央集权扩大了统治基础;

国有专营制度:有效控制国家重要资源,扩大了中央财政收入,加强了中央集权的经济基础。

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阅读理解

    Before discussing different kinds of emotions,let us briefly talk about how researchers measure bodily processes and action or behavior,and how this relates to what we do in our daily lives when we observe emotions in others.

    Bodily processes can be directly measured by means of a polygraph.When a polygraph is skillfully used to compare how we react bodily with what we are saying,it is called a “lie detector”.Bodily processes can also be measured indirectly.This is what we do when we observe someone blushing (脸红).However,we are not always aware of what bodily processes respond to.

    Measuring action or behavior is the other way researchers assess the emotions.For example,one measure of fear of snakes is how close a person will go to the snake.Another procedure is to have a person tell how afraid he is,or how he feels.In this way,researchers have developed the so-called “fear thermometer” to assess a person's fear.In our everyday living,we do very much the same thing.Only not too systematically,we react to what a person does, what he says,how he says it,and how he looks.Is he smiling? Is his voice trembling? We put all this observations together to infer what a person is feeling.

    However, we do not always act as we feel.Sometimes we do things that we don't feel like doing.Sometimes we say we feel one way and then we act another.Actors,for example,successfully learn to “make believe” emotions,or learn to hide them.Thus we cannot always tell what a person is feeling by what he says or by what he does.