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画家画天空,背后有科学

    爱德华·蒙克的《呐喊》中,天空充满了红色的颜料,它们像一大块黏糊糊的东西,看起来如此沉重,似乎即将压下来。这夸张的色彩也许不是画家的随意泼墨,美国得克萨斯州立大学物理学家唐纳德·奥尔森在《天空和望远镜》杂志中指出,蒙克画中的红色天空,也许是一种自然现象。

    那些传世画作往往反映了真实的气候环境情况。希腊气象局科学家赫里斯托斯·泽雷弗斯所带领的科研小组也做了类似的研究。他们搜集了554幅日落油画和水彩画。这些画作分别出自181位著名画家之手,其中包括法国印象主义画家德加、奥地利画家克里姆特、荷兰画家伦勃朗、德国宫廷画师鲁本斯等。最后他们把研究论文发表于《大气化学与物理学》杂志上。该论文分析了16世纪以来554幅描绘日落景象的名画中红绿两色的使用频率,结果表明,在过去的100年中,大气中的悬浮颗粒物浓度一直呈上升趋势。他们认为,自然因素和人为因素造成大气中粉尘含量上升,这会阻碍阳光进入大气层,导致全球暗化。

    英国伯明翰大学气象学家约翰·托宁多年来也一直在苦心研究各个时期英格兰各地的天气状况,他意外发现莫奈旅居伦敦期间的作品为他留下了宝贵的资料。莫奈创作于那时期的画作中,阳光在泰晤士河上跳跃闪耀,天空呈现出奇异的色彩变化。约翰·托宁想到,这些丰富的颜色并非出于莫奈头脑中的艺术幻想,而来自于真实的伦敦生活。那漫天黄色,应是高硫含量的煤燃烧后烟尘和硫酸盐颗粒散布到空气中,成为水蒸气的凝结核所致,在此条件下形成的雾霾比自然形成的雾更为持久。比较巧合的是,狄更斯在其有关英国工业革命时期的小说《雾都孤儿》中也写道:“在城市边缘地带,雾是深黄色的。靠里一点儿,是棕色的。再靠里一点儿,棕色再深一些。直到商业区的中心地带,雾是赭黑色的。”

    科学家去做了验证,选取莫奈1898~1900年创作的9幅作品,结合他同一时期的信件和日记,与美国海军天文台的数据对照。令他们惊叹的是,莫奈身为艺术家,却如同科学研究者一样,一丝不苟地记录了创作日期及太阳所处的位置,绝无臆造。所以印象派大师的确是非常可信地用手中画笔将伦敦当年的绝世光影留存于世的。不过印象派大师的绚丽色彩,可能来自PM10之类的大气污染物,想到这点不免让人有些沮丧

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    When something great happens to a friend, a family member or a classmate, congratulations are in order! However, some people don't know how to congratulate others. Here are some ways to show your congratulations.

Say “congratulations” with a smile. Remember to express your congratulations with a winning smile. The expression on your face is pretty important. If you say “congratulations” with a serious look on your face, the person will probably think you aren't actually all that happy for him or her.

    Send an en email or a card. Besides saying “congratulations in person, you might want to send a congratulatory note. You can send a simple email or write a message on a card. You can buy some beautiful cards in the store.

    Send a gift. If the occasion is special enough, you can send a gift. You don't need to buy something expensive. Try to buy a suitable gift. All in all, choose a gift that lets the person know you want to celebrate with him or her.

    Spread the word. You can help spread the person's joy by telling other people the good news, so they can congratulate the person as well. If the person prefers to keep the good news private, don't spread the word.

Title:  How to ____

Say “congratulations” with a smile.

★ Express your congratulations with a winning smile.

____ congratulations with a serous look on your face.

Send an en email or a card.

You can send a simple email or ____ on a card.

Send a gift.

You can buy a suitable gift instead of something expensive.

Spread the word.

★You can tell other people the good news.

★You can spread the good news around if the person ____keep it private.