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    自魏晋以来,在玄学思潮的推动下,开创了在文学创作中追求言外之意、弦外之音、象外之趣以及言有尽而意无穷的美学旨趣。中国古代诗歌理论对此有大量论述,这是众所周知的。由此,许多人认为这是中国古典美学和诗歌理论独有的特征,因而不同于西方美学理论重视对文学作品严密的逻辑性和理性的分析,不重视以有限的形式容纳无限的内涵。

    但事实并非如此。现代西方接受美学理论指出,一部文学作品中总是存在许多意义空缺部分。德国康士坦茨学派的伊瑟尔认为,作品本身是作家有意识活动的产物,只能部分地左右读者的理解和反应,其中总包含一些“空白”或“不明确的因素”。这一点在现代文学中尤其明显。伊瑟尔在《隐含的读者》一书中,从对英国古典作家班扬到现代作家贝克特的作品进行的历史考察中,发现这几个世纪以来,西方文学作品总的趋势是“空白”和“不确定性”越来越多,因而要求读者在阅读过程中必须有主观因素的积极参与。西方现代接受美学也把追求空白和不确定性,作为衡量文学作品艺术水准高下的重要尺度。上述事实都说明,重视文学作品的言外之意、言不尽意和以少寓多,并不只是中国古典美学和诗学的特征,而可以说是人类审美的普遍现象。

    这一人类经验的普遍特征,同人类语言的特点有着内在的联系。正是由于人类语言在表达意义和情感时普遍存在局限性,因此无论怎样详尽的语言描述也不可能把现象世界的全貌呈现于人们的面前,而必须以形象去调动人们的想象,来弥补自然语言在表意方面的不足,“穷理析义,须资象喻”,形象可以启示联想,“作者得于心,览者会以意,殆难指陈以言也”。作者把自己对生活的体验熔铸在形象里,欣赏者又通过形象唤起对同类情景的联想,来补充抽象、概括的词语所舍弃的细节、关系、情境。正如清代刘熙载指出的,“文所不能言之意,诗或能言之;山之精神写不出,以烟雾写之;春之精神写不出,以草树写之。故诗无气象,则精神亦无所寓矣”。诗的语言以塑造形象为己任,是富有启发性、暗示性的语言,启发读者通过自己的想象,去求得那象外、景外、韵外、味外的旨趣。“鸡声茅店月,人迹板桥霜”,“怪禽啼旷野,落日恐行人”。在这里,诗人完全是以塑造形象的手法来表现道路辛苦、羁愁旅思的。一个手势,一个流盼,一颦一笑,所包含的情意往往是语言不能曲折尽传的。“盈盈一水间,脉脉不得语。”在这种“心头无限意,尽在不言中”的形象里,彼此的情意都已心照不宣了,不需要更多的语言。

    艺术的美感并不简单地等同于艺术形象所显现的,而且包括艺术形象在欣赏者心目中所引发的。艺术作品的形象必须与欣赏者的想象相结合,才能充分发挥其审美作用。现代接受美学要求文学创作有更多的“空白”“不确定性”和“召唤性”,这是群体欣赏水平提高的表现,是现代意识的自觉,是人类审美意识的需要。

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   More than 50,000,000 people live in the rainforests of the world and most of them do not hurt the forest they live in. They eat the fruits that grow on the forest trees, but they do not cut them down. They kill some animals to eat, but they do not destroy them.
When we cut down the rainforests, we destroy these forest people, too. In 1900, there were 1,000,000 forest people in the Amazon forest. In 1980, there were only 200,000.
   The Yanomami live along the rivers of the rainforest in the north of Brazil. They have lived in the rainforest for about 10,000 years and they use more than 2,000 different plants for food and for medicine. But in 1988, someone found gold in their forest, and suddenly 45,000 people came to the forest and began looking for gold. They cut down the forest to make roads. They made more than a hundred airports. The Yanomami people lost land and food. Many died because new diseases came to the forest with the strangers.
   The Yanomami people tried to save their forest, because it was their home. But the people who wanted gold were stronger.
Many forest people try to save their forests. Chico Mendes was famous in Brazil because he wanted to keep the forest for his people. “I want the Amazon forest to help all of us-forest people Brazil, and all the Earth,” he said. A few months later, in December 1988, people who wanted to cut down the forest killed Chico Mendes.
   In Borneo, people were cutting down the forest of the Penan people to sell the wood. The Penan people tried to save their rainforest. They made blockades across the roads into the forest. In 1987, they closed fifteen roads for eight months. No one cut down any trees during that time.
   In Panama, the Kuna people saved their forest. They made a forest park which tourists pay to visit.
  The Gavioes people of Brazil use the forest, but they protect it as well. They find and sell the Brazil nuts(坚果) which grow on the forest trees.